Leonid Brezhnev in 1968: Leadership, Achievements, and Challenges

In 1968, Leonid Brezhnev was at the helm of the Soviet Union, navigating a complex landscape of Cold War politics, domestic governance, and ideological battles within the communist world. As the General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU), Brezhnev's leadership during this pivotal year was marked by significant events and initiatives that shaped the trajectory of Soviet and global history. This blog explores Brezhnev's achievements, challenges, and the defining moments of his leadership in 1968.

Consolidation of Power

By 1968, Brezhnev had solidified his control over the Soviet political landscape. After assuming the role of General Secretary in 1964, he gradually outmaneuvered rivals and established a stable power base. This year marked a period where Brezhnev’s influence was firmly entrenched, allowing him to direct the country’s policies more effectively. His leadership style, characterized by pragmatism and a collective approach, ensured the stability of the Soviet political system, even as it faced external and internal pressures.

The Prague Spring and the Brezhnev Doctrine

One of the most significant events of 1968 was the Prague Spring, a period of political liberalization and reform in Czechoslovakia under the leadership of Alexander Dubček. Dubček’s efforts to implement "socialism with a human face" through political and economic reforms alarmed the Soviet leadership, who feared the spread of such ideas to other Eastern Bloc countries.

Brezhnev responded decisively to the Prague Spring by articulating what became known as the Brezhnev Doctrine. This doctrine asserted the Soviet Union’s right to intervene in the affairs of socialist countries to preserve the communist system. On August 20-21, 1968, Brezhnev ordered a military intervention in Czechoslovakia. Soviet and Warsaw Pact troops invaded the country, swiftly crushing the reform movement. The invasion underscored the USSR’s commitment to maintaining strict control over its satellite states and preventing any deviation from orthodox Marxist-Leninist principles.

The Brezhnev Doctrine had far-reaching implications. It reinforced the Soviet Union’s dominance over Eastern Europe, but it also attracted widespread condemnation from the international community, particularly from Western nations. The invasion of Czechoslovakia highlighted the limits of Soviet tolerance for political reform within the socialist bloc and solidified Brezhnev’s reputation as a staunch defender of the status quo.

Domestic Policies and Economic Management

Domestically, Brezhnev’s policies in 1968 continued to emphasize stability and incremental economic progress. His approach to governance, often referred to as the "Era of Stagnation," sought to maintain the existing social and economic order while avoiding radical reforms. This conservative stance was rooted in a desire to prevent the instability that had characterized the Khrushchev era.

In the economic sphere, Brezhnev focused on industrial and agricultural production. The Soviet economy, while achieving growth, was increasingly marked by inefficiencies and stagnation. In 1968, the implementation of the Kosygin reforms, named after Prime Minister Alexei Kosygin, aimed to improve economic performance by introducing some market-oriented mechanisms within the framework of central planning. These reforms sought to enhance enterprise autonomy and incentivize productivity. However, their impact was limited due to resistance from party bureaucrats and the entrenched command economy structure.

Brezhnev also prioritized military spending, reflecting the intense Cold War rivalry with the United States. The Soviet Union continued to invest heavily in its defense capabilities, maintaining parity with the U.S. in terms of nuclear and conventional forces. This military buildup was a double-edged sword: it bolstered Soviet power on the global stage but also strained the economy, diverting resources away from consumer goods and social services.

International Relations and Cold War Dynamics

In the broader context of the Cold War, 1968 was a year of complex interactions between the Soviet Union and the West. The Vietnam War was ongoing, and the Soviet Union provided substantial support to North Vietnam, both militarily and economically. This support was part of Brezhnev’s strategy to counter U.S. influence and extend Soviet influence in Southeast Asia.

Another significant aspect of Soviet foreign policy in 1968 was the relationship with China. The Sino-Soviet split had deepened by this time, with ideological and territorial disputes straining relations between the two largest communist powers. Brezhnev’s administration viewed China’s radical policies under Mao Zedong as a threat to Soviet leadership in the communist world. This rift influenced Soviet strategic calculations and contributed to the shaping of alliances and rivalries during the Cold War.

On the diplomatic front, Brezhnev pursued détente with the West, particularly with the United States and Western Europe. While the invasion of Czechoslovakia strained relations, the Soviet leadership remained committed to engaging in arms control negotiations. This period saw preliminary discussions that would eventually lead to significant agreements, such as the Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT) and the Anti-Ballistic Missile (ABM) Treaty, both aimed at curbing the nuclear arms race.

Cultural and Social Policies

Brezhnev’s leadership in 1968 also extended to cultural and social policies within the Soviet Union. The regime continued to promote Soviet ideology through strict control of the media, education, and cultural institutions. Censorship remained pervasive, and dissent was harshly repressed. Notable dissidents, such as Andrei Sakharov and Alexander Solzhenitsyn, faced persecution for their outspoken criticism of the Soviet system.

Despite these repressive measures, the Soviet Union experienced a flourishing of artistic and intellectual activity within the constraints of state control. Soviet cinema, literature, and science achieved notable successes during this period, contributing to the country’s cultural prestige. The state-sponsored promotion of Soviet achievements in space exploration also continued, with ongoing efforts to demonstrate technological and scientific prowess.

The Soviet Union's Global Influence

Brezhnev's Soviet Union in 1968 was a formidable global power with significant influence in various regions. In the Middle East, the Soviet Union maintained strong ties with Arab nations, particularly Egypt under President Gamal Abdel Nasser. Soviet support for Arab states in their conflicts with Israel was a key element of its foreign policy, aimed at countering U.S. influence in the region.

In Latin America, the Soviet Union continued to support revolutionary movements and socialist governments, most notably in Cuba under Fidel Castro. This support was part of a broader strategy to expand Soviet influence and challenge U.S. dominance in the Western Hemisphere.

In Africa, the Soviet Union provided assistance to newly independent nations and liberation movements, positioning itself as a champion of anti-colonialism and socialist development. This engagement was part of a broader effort to project Soviet power and ideology globally, often in competition with Western nations.

Conclusion

Leonid Brezhnev's leadership in 1968 was marked by a mix of significant achievements and formidable challenges. His consolidation of power within the Soviet Union allowed him to pursue a cautious and pragmatic approach to governance, focusing on stability and incremental economic improvements. The Brezhnev Doctrine and the invasion of Czechoslovakia underscored his commitment to maintaining Soviet dominance in Eastern Europe and preventing political liberalization within the socialist bloc.

Brezhnev’s policies in 1968 also reflected the broader dynamics of the Cold War, with ongoing military and ideological competition with the United States, complex relations with China, and efforts to expand Soviet influence in various regions. Despite the repression of dissent and the limitations of his economic reforms, Brezhnev’s leadership during this pivotal year played a crucial role in shaping the trajectory of the Soviet Union and its position in the global order.

As history continues to evaluate Brezhnev's legacy, the events and initiatives of 1968 remain a defining chapter in understanding his impact on the Soviet Union and the world.

1968 President of Singapore

Yusof bin Ishak (12 August 1910 – 23 November 1970) was an eminent Singaporean politician and the first President of Singapore. His portrait appears on the Singapore Portrait Series currency notes introduced in 1999.

Yusof was well known both as a journalist and the founder of the Malay newspaper Utusan Melayu prior to becoming head of state of Singapore. He was married to Noor Aishah.

He first served as Yang di-Pertuan Negara (head of state) between 1959 and 1965, remaining in office during the time that Singapore was part of the Federation of Malaysia between 1963 and 1965. Following Singapore's departure from Malaysia in 1965, he served as the first President of the Republic until his death in 1970.

Yusof is buried at Kranji State Cemetery.

1968 French Republic President

Charles André Joseph Marie de Gaulle (22 November 1890 – 9 November 1970) was a French general and statesman who led the Free French Forces during World War II. He later founded the French Fifth Republic in 1958 and served as its first President from 1959 to 1969. The 18th President of French Republic and Co-Prince of Andora

As President, Charles de Gaulle ended the political chaos that preceded his return to power. A new French currency was issued in January 1960 to control inflation and industrial growth was promoted. Although he initially supported French rule over Algeria, he controversially decided to grant independence to that country, ending an expensive and unpopular war but leaving France divided and having to face down opposition from the white settlers and French military who had originally supported his return to power.

De Gaulle oversaw the development of French atomic weapons and promoted a pan-European foreign policy, seeking independence from U.S. and British influence. He withdrew France from NATO military command - although remaining a member of the western alliance - and twice vetoed Britain's entry into the European Community. He travelled widely in Eastern Europe and other parts of the world and recognised Communist China. On a visit to Canada he gave encouragement to Quebec Separatism.

During his term, de Gaulle also faced controversy and political opposition from Communists and Socialists. Despite having been re-elected as President, this time by direct popular ballot, in 1965, in May 1968 he appeared likely to lose power amidst widespread protests by students and orkers, but survived the crisis with an increased majority in the Assembly. However, de Gaulle resigned after losing a referendum in 1969. He is considered by many to be the most influential leader in modern French history.

1968 ruler of Abu Dhabi of UAE

Sheikh Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan (Arabic: زايد بن سلطان آل نهيان‎)‎, (1918 – 2 November 2004), the principal architect of United Arab Emirates (UAE), was the ruler of Abu Dhabi and president of the UAE for over 30 years (1971-2004).

Zayed was the youngest son of Sheikh Sultan bin Zayed bin Khalifa Al Nahyan, the traditional ruler of Abu Dhabi from 1922 to 1926. He was named after his famous grandfather, Sheikh Zayed bin Khalifa Al Nahyan, who ruled the emirate from 1855 to 1909. On August 6, 1966 he succeeded his brother, Sheikh Shakhbut Bin-Sultan Al Nahyan, as emir of Abu Dhabi after the latter was deposed in a bloodless palace coup. Zayed was first appointed (by the other six Sheikhs on the Supreme Council) to the presidency of the UAE in 1971 and was reappointed on four further occasions: 1976, 1981, 1986, and 1991. He was considered a relatively liberal ruler, and permitted private media. However, they were expected to practice self-censorship and avoid criticism of Zayed or the ruling families.

He was the ruler of the Eastern Region form 1946 before becoming the ruler of the whole Abu Dhabi.

1968 Prime Minister of Japan

Eisaku Satō (Satō Eisaku?, March 27, 1901 – June 3, 1975) was a Japanese politician and the 61st, 62nd and 63rd Prime Minister of Japan, elected on November 9, 1964, and re-elected on February 17, 1967, and January 14, 1970, serving until July 7, 1972. He was the longest serving prime minister in the history of Japan.

1968 was a pivotal year for Japan, as it marked the beginning of Eisaku Sato's tenure as Prime Minister. Sato, who served as Prime Minister from November 9, 1964 to December 25, 1972, is considered one of Japan's most important and influential leaders of the 20th century.

During his tenure, Sato implemented a number of important policies that helped to solidify Japan's position as a major economic power. One of his most notable achievements was the introduction of the "Japan-US Joint Communique" which normalized the relationship between the two countries and set the stage for Japan's economic growth. He also focused on domestic policies, such as the improvement of living standards of citizens and the promotion of science and technology to spur economic development.

Sato also played a key role in Japan's foreign policy during this time period, particularly in its relations with the United States and Southeast Asia. He established diplomatic relations with a number of Southeast Asian countries and worked to improve relations between Japan and its former colonies.

Sato's tenure as Prime Minister also saw the rise of the student movement and protests for democratic reforms, which he handled with great care and tact. He was able to maintain stability and order while also pushing for political and social reforms.

In recognition of his contributions to Japan's development, Sato was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1974, becoming the first Japanese Prime Minister to receive the award. He was recognized for his efforts to promote peace in Asia and for his contributions to the improvement of Japan-US relations.

Overall, Eisaku Sato played a crucial role in shaping Japan's economic and political landscape during his tenure as Prime Minister in 1968 and his legacy continues to be felt to this day.

1968 Indonesia's President

Suharto (8 June 1921 – 27 January 2008) was the second President of Indonesia. He held the office from 1967 following Sukarno's removal up to his resignation in 1998.

Suharto was born in a small village near Yogyakarta, during the Dutch colonial controera. His Javanese peasant parents divorced not long after his birth, and for much of his childhood he was passed between foster parents. During the Japanese occupation of Indonesia, Suharto served in Japanese-organised Indonesian security forces. During Indonesia's independence struggle, he joined the newly-formed Indonesian army. Following Indonesian independence, Suharto rose to the rank of Major General. An attempted coup on 30 September 1965 was countered by Suharto-led troops, was blamed on the Indonesian Communist Party. An army led anti-communist purge, killed over half a million people, and Suharto wrested power from Indonesia's founding president, Sukarno. He was appointed acting president in 1967 and President the following year. Support for Suharto's presidency eroded following the hardship of 1997–98 Asian financial crisis. He was forced to resign from the presidency in May 1998 and he died in 2008.

The legacy of Suharto's 32-year rule is debated both in Indonesia and abroad. Under his "New Order" administration, Suharto constructed a strong, centralised and military-dominated government. An ability to maintain stability over a sprawling and diverse Indonesia and an avowedly anti-Communist stance won him the economic and diplomatic support of the West during the Cold War. For most of his presidency, Indonesia experienced significant economic growth and industrialisation, dramatically improving health, education and living standards. Indonesia's 24-year occupation of East Timor during Suharto's presidency, resulted in at least 100,000 deaths. By the 1990s, the New Order's authoritarianism and widespread corruption was a source of discontent. In the years since his presidency, attempts to try him on charges of corruption and genocide failed because of his poor health.

Like many Javanese, Suharto had only one name. In religious contexts, he is sometimes called “Haji” or “el-Haj Mohammed Suharto”, but this Islamic title is not part of his formal name or generally used. The spelling "Suharto" reflects current Indonesian spelling, but people's names were always exempt from this. The English-language press generally uses the spelling 'Suharto', but Suharto and his family, as well as the Indonesian government and media, use 'Soeharto'.

1968 Prime Minister of Australia

On 10 January 1968, Sir John Grey Gorton, (September 1911 – 19 May 2002), Australian politician, became the 19th Prime Minister in unusual circumstances. He was elected Liberal Party leader to replace Harold Holt, who had disappeared the previous month while swimming off the Victorian coast, and was presumed dead. Gorton also left the job in unusual circumstances – he declared himself out of office after a tied party vote of confidence in his leadership on 10 March 1971.

Prime Minister John Gorton with Indonesian President Soeharto in Djakarta during the Gorton’s visit in 1968.