Gamal Abdel Nasser in 1968: A Year of Resilience and Transformation

Gamal Abdel Nasser, the charismatic and influential leader of Egypt, is a towering figure in modern Middle Eastern history. As the country's President from 1956 until his death in 1970, Nasser left an indelible mark on Egypt and the broader Arab world. The year 1968 was a pivotal period in his leadership, characterized by both challenges and transformative initiatives. This article explores Nasser's significant actions and achievements during 1968, highlighting his enduring influence on Egyptian and regional politics.

Navigating the Aftermath of the Six-Day War

The most pressing issue for Nasser in 1968 was the aftermath of the Six-Day War, which had ended in June 1967 with a devastating defeat for Egypt and its allies. Israel's victory had resulted in the occupation of the Sinai Peninsula, leaving Egypt with a significant territorial and psychological blow. Nasser faced immense pressure to restore Egyptian dignity and recover lost territories.

In response, Nasser embarked on a campaign to rebuild Egypt's military and reassert its presence on the international stage. He adopted a policy of "no peace, no war," maintaining a state of readiness along the Suez Canal. This period, known as the War of Attrition, involved sporadic skirmishes and artillery exchanges with Israeli forces. Nasser's goal was to wear down Israeli defenses and regain control of the Sinai Peninsula. He sought to bolster Egypt's military capabilities with the assistance of the Soviet Union, securing new weaponry and military training for Egyptian forces.

Political Reforms and Domestic Policies

Domestically, 1968 was a year of political introspection and reform for Nasser. The aftermath of the Six-Day War had exposed weaknesses in Egypt's political and military structures. In response, Nasser initiated a series of reforms aimed at strengthening the country's governance and addressing public discontent.

One significant reform was the restructuring of the Arab Socialist Union (ASU), Egypt's sole political party at the time. Nasser aimed to revitalize the ASU, making it a more effective vehicle for political participation and mobilization. He encouraged greater grassroots involvement and sought to purge the party of corrupt and ineffective elements. This reform was part of a broader effort to re-engage the Egyptian populace and strengthen national unity.

Nasser also focused on social and economic development, continuing his efforts to modernize Egypt's economy. Despite the economic challenges posed by the war, Nasser's government pursued ambitious infrastructure projects, including the expansion of the Aswan High Dam and improvements in agricultural productivity. He remained committed to his vision of social justice, promoting policies aimed at reducing inequality and improving access to education and healthcare.

Cultural and Ideological Leadership

Nasser's influence extended beyond politics and economics; he was a cultural and ideological icon for the Arab world. In 1968, he continued to champion the cause of Arab nationalism and anti-imperialism. His vision of a united Arab world, free from colonial influence, resonated with millions across the region. Nasser's speeches and public addresses were marked by a fiery rhetoric that inspired Arab unity and resistance against foreign domination.

In addition to his political and military initiatives, Nasser also promoted cultural and educational advancements. He supported the expansion of Egypt's cultural institutions and media, fostering a sense of national identity and pride. This included the promotion of Egyptian cinema, literature, and arts, which flourished during his tenure. Nasser's emphasis on cultural development was part of his broader vision of a modern, independent Egypt leading the Arab world.

Diplomatic Maneuvers and International Relations

Nasser's diplomacy in 1968 was marked by efforts to navigate the complex geopolitics of the Cold War. He continued to balance Egypt's relationships with both the Soviet Union and the United States, although his alignment with the Soviet bloc became more pronounced following the Six-Day War. The Soviet Union provided critical military and economic support, helping Egypt rebuild its armed forces and infrastructure.

Nasser also sought to strengthen ties with other non-aligned countries and promote solidarity among developing nations. He was an active participant in the Non-Aligned Movement, advocating for the rights and independence of nations outside the influence of the superpowers. In 1968, Nasser's leadership in the movement helped articulate a vision for a more equitable international order, challenging both Western and Eastern blocs.

Challenges and Criticisms

Despite his many achievements, Nasser faced significant challenges and criticisms in 1968. The aftermath of the Six-Day War had led to a crisis of confidence in his leadership, both domestically and internationally. The loss of the Sinai Peninsula and the ongoing military stalemate along the Suez Canal eroded Nasser's prestige. Additionally, Egypt's economic difficulties, exacerbated by the costs of the military buildup, created public discontent.

Nasser's authoritarian governance style also faced criticism. His crackdown on political dissent and limitations on political freedoms were sources of tension within Egypt. The restructuring of the ASU, while aimed at revitalizing the party, also reinforced the centralization of power under Nasser. Critics argued that his leadership stifled political pluralism and limited democratic participation.

Legacy and Impact

The events and initiatives of 1968 played a crucial role in shaping Nasser's legacy. His resilience in the face of adversity, commitment to Arab unity, and vision for a modern Egypt left a lasting impact on the Middle East. Nasser's efforts to rebuild Egypt's military and his leadership during the War of Attrition demonstrated his determination to restore Egypt's regional standing.

Nasser's domestic policies, particularly in social and economic development, laid the foundation for future progress. His emphasis on education, healthcare, and infrastructure development contributed to Egypt's modernization. Despite the challenges and criticisms he faced, Nasser remained a symbol of Arab nationalism and anti-imperialism, inspiring movements for independence and social justice across the Arab world.

Conclusion

The year 1968 was a defining moment in the leadership of Gamal Abdel Nasser. It was a year marked by resilience, reform, and a steadfast commitment to Egypt's national interests. Nasser's actions and achievements during this period reflected his vision for a strong, independent, and unified Arab world. His legacy continues to resonate in contemporary Middle Eastern politics, as a symbol of resistance and a champion of Arab nationalism.

Ferdinand Marcos in 1968: A Year of Ambition, Infrastructure, and Controversy

In 1968, Ferdinand Marcos was the President of the Philippines, a role he had assumed in 1965. His leadership during this period was marked by ambitious infrastructure projects, economic reforms, and increasing political power. However, 1968 was also a year that foreshadowed the more controversial aspects of his rule, which would later culminate in the declaration of martial law in 1972. This blog explores the significant events, achievements, and initiatives of Ferdinand Marcos in 1968, highlighting both the progress and the challenges of his presidency.

Ambitious Infrastructure Projects

One of the hallmarks of Ferdinand Marcos's presidency was his focus on infrastructure development. In 1968, this focus was evident through numerous projects aimed at modernizing the Philippines and stimulating economic growth. Marcos believed that robust infrastructure was key to national development and sought to transform the Philippines into a progressive nation through his "infrastructure revolution."

During this year, significant investments were made in building roads, bridges, and public buildings. The construction of the Manila North and South Expressways began, aimed at improving connectivity and reducing travel time between major cities. These expressways were crucial in facilitating trade and commerce, contributing to economic activity in the regions they connected.

Another notable project initiated in 1968 was the Cultural Center of the Philippines (CCP). Marcos envisioned the CCP as a hub for Filipino arts and culture, showcasing the country's rich heritage and fostering artistic talent. The CCP became a symbol of Marcos's ambition to elevate Filipino culture and promote national pride.

Economic Reforms and Industrialization

Marcos's administration in 1968 also focused on economic reforms and industrialization. Recognizing the need for a diversified economy, he promoted policies aimed at reducing dependency on agriculture and encouraging industrial growth. This year saw the implementation of various programs to attract foreign investment and boost manufacturing.

The establishment of export processing zones (EPZs) was a significant step in this direction. These zones offered tax incentives and relaxed regulations to foreign investors, encouraging them to set up manufacturing facilities in the Philippines. The EPZs played a crucial role in generating employment and increasing export revenues, contributing to the country's economic growth.

Additionally, Marcos pushed for land reform to address the longstanding issues of land ownership and rural poverty. The Agricultural Land Reform Code was introduced to redistribute land to tenant farmers, aiming to improve agricultural productivity and reduce rural inequality. Although the implementation faced challenges, it marked an important step towards addressing social disparities in the countryside.

Political Maneuvering and Consolidation of Power

1968 was a year when Ferdinand Marcos further consolidated his political power. As his first term neared its end, Marcos was already strategizing for re-election in 1969. He worked to strengthen his influence within the political landscape, ensuring that he maintained control over key political institutions.

Marcos's political maneuvering included building alliances with influential political figures and leveraging state resources to secure loyalty. His administration also saw the increasing use of patronage politics, where government positions and favors were granted in exchange for political support. This approach helped Marcos solidify his base and prepare for the upcoming election.

The Jabidah Massacre and Its Aftermath

One of the most controversial events of 1968 was the Jabidah Massacre, which had far-reaching implications for Marcos's presidency. In March of that year, allegations surfaced that Muslim trainees in a covert military operation were killed on Corregidor Island. The operation, known as Operation Merdeka, aimed to destabilize Sabah, a region claimed by both the Philippines and Malaysia.

The massacre sparked outrage among the Muslim population in Mindanao and Sulu, leading to increased tensions and the rise of separatist movements. It exposed deep-seated issues of discrimination and marginalization faced by Muslim Filipinos, which would later escalate into the Moro conflict. The Jabidah Massacre remains a dark chapter in Philippine history, highlighting the complexities of Marcos's rule and its impact on national unity.

Focus on Education and Healthcare

Despite the controversies, Marcos's administration also made strides in improving education and healthcare in 1968. Recognizing the importance of human capital development, the government invested in expanding access to education and improving the quality of healthcare services.

In the education sector, efforts were made to build new schools and enhance educational infrastructure, particularly in rural areas. Scholarship programs were introduced to support students from disadvantaged backgrounds, aiming to create a more equitable education system. Marcos's government also promoted technical and vocational education to equip the workforce with skills needed for industrialization.

Healthcare initiatives focused on expanding public health services and addressing common health issues. The government launched campaigns to combat diseases such as tuberculosis and malaria, improving access to medical care in underserved communities. Investments were made in building hospitals and training healthcare professionals, enhancing the overall healthcare system.

Military Modernization and National Security

Ensuring national security was a priority for Ferdinand Marcos in 1968. His administration undertook significant efforts to modernize the military and strengthen the defense capabilities of the Philippines. Recognizing the strategic importance of a robust military, Marcos sought to build a well-equipped and professional armed forces.

The government allocated substantial resources to modernizing military equipment and infrastructure. Training programs were enhanced to improve the skills and preparedness of military personnel. Marcos also focused on strengthening maritime security, given the archipelagic nature of the Philippines and its extensive coastline.

Cultural Initiatives and National Identity

Ferdinand Marcos aimed to foster a strong sense of national identity and pride among Filipinos. In 1968, cultural initiatives played a significant role in promoting Filipino heritage and unity. The establishment of the Cultural Center of the Philippines was a key part of this vision, providing a venue for showcasing Filipino arts and culture.

Marcos's administration also supported various cultural programs and events that celebrated Philippine history and traditions. Efforts were made to preserve historical sites and promote tourism, highlighting the country's rich cultural diversity. These initiatives aimed to instill a sense of pride and belonging among Filipinos, strengthening the national identity.

Conclusion

1968 was a pivotal year for Ferdinand Marcos and the Philippines. His ambitious infrastructure projects and economic reforms aimed at modernizing the country and stimulating growth. However, the year also exposed the complexities and controversies of his rule, with events like the Jabidah Massacre highlighting the challenges of national unity and social justice.

Marcos's efforts to consolidate political power and implement social reforms left a lasting impact on the Philippines. While his administration achieved significant progress in infrastructure, education, and healthcare, it also faced criticism for its political maneuvering and human rights issues. The legacy of Ferdinand Marcos's leadership in 1968 is a testament to the ambitious yet contentious nature of his presidency, shaping the trajectory of the Philippines for years to come.

President Lyndon B. Johnson: A Pivotal Year in 1968

1968 was a tumultuous and transformative year for President Lyndon B. Johnson, marked by significant achievements, critical challenges, and profound impact on American society and politics. As the 36th President of the United States, Johnson navigated the complexities of a nation in flux, striving to advance his vision of the Great Society while contending with the escalating Vietnam War and widespread civil unrest.

The Great Society Initiatives

President Johnson's domestic agenda, known as the Great Society, aimed to eliminate poverty and racial injustice while improving education, healthcare, and urban development. Despite the distractions of the Vietnam War, Johnson achieved significant progress in these areas during 1968.

One of the most notable accomplishments was the continued implementation of Medicare and Medicaid, programs established in 1965. By 1968, these initiatives were providing millions of elderly and low-income Americans with access to healthcare, fundamentally transforming the nation's healthcare landscape. Additionally, the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965, part of Johnson's educational reform efforts, continued to channel federal funds to schools, particularly benefiting underprivileged children.

In urban development, the Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD), created in 1965, worked to improve living conditions in America's cities. The Model Cities Program, initiated under HUD, sought to address urban blight and promote comprehensive planning and social services in targeted areas. By 1968, these efforts were in full swing, albeit facing challenges from political opposition and bureaucratic hurdles.

The Vietnam War

Arguably the most contentious issue of Johnson's presidency was the Vietnam War. 1968 was a critical year in this conflict, marked by the Tet Offensive, a series of surprise attacks by the North Vietnamese and Viet Cong forces on major cities and bases in South Vietnam. The offensive began on January 30, 1968, during the Tet holiday, and was a significant psychological blow to the U.S. and South Vietnamese forces, despite being a military failure for the communists.

The Tet Offensive dramatically shifted American public opinion against the war. Images and reports of fierce fighting, particularly in cities like Hue and Saigon, brought the brutal realities of the conflict into American living rooms. The credibility gap between the Johnson administration's optimistic reports and the actual situation on the ground widened, fueling anti-war sentiment and leading to widespread protests.

In response to growing opposition, President Johnson made a momentous decision on March 31, 1968. In a nationally televised address, he announced a partial halt to the bombing of North Vietnam and expressed his willingness to engage in peace talks. More startlingly, Johnson declared that he would not seek re-election, a decision that stunned the nation and underscored the immense strain the Vietnam War had placed on his presidency.

Civil Rights and Social Unrest

The struggle for civil rights and racial equality was another defining aspect of Johnson's presidency. 1968 was a pivotal year in this ongoing fight, marked by both progress and profound tragedy. The Civil Rights Act of 1968, also known as the Fair Housing Act, was a landmark piece of legislation that Johnson signed into law on April 11, 1968. This act prohibited discrimination concerning the sale, rental, and financing of housing based on race, religion, national origin, and later, gender. It was a significant step towards addressing systemic racism and promoting fair housing practices.

However, 1968 was also a year of immense sorrow and upheaval in the civil rights movement. On April 4, 1968, Dr. Martin Luther King Jr., the iconic civil rights leader, was assassinated in Memphis, Tennessee. His death sparked riots and protests in cities across the country, highlighting the deep racial tensions and the urgent need for continued efforts towards equality.

In the wake of King's assassination, Johnson called for calm and urged Congress to pass the Fair Housing Act as a tribute to King's legacy. Despite the challenges and violence, the passage of this act represented a commitment to continuing the fight for civil rights and social justice.

Economic Challenges

While Johnson's Great Society programs made significant strides in addressing poverty and inequality, the economic landscape of 1968 presented considerable challenges. The costs of the Vietnam War were mounting, putting immense pressure on the federal budget and contributing to inflation. The need to balance spending on the war with domestic programs created a fiscal strain, leading to growing concerns about the sustainability of Johnson's ambitious agenda.

In response to these economic pressures, Johnson introduced measures to curb inflation and manage the budget deficit. However, the trade-offs between war expenditures and domestic investments became increasingly contentious, both within his administration and among the public. This economic balancing act added another layer of complexity to Johnson's presidency in 1968.

International Relations

Beyond Vietnam, President Johnson faced several other significant international issues in 1968. The Cold War continued to shape global politics, and Johnson worked to manage U.S. relations with both allies and adversaries. One notable event was the signing of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) on July 1, 1968. The treaty aimed to prevent the spread of nuclear weapons and promote peaceful uses of nuclear energy. Johnson's administration played a crucial role in negotiating this agreement, which became a cornerstone of global non-proliferation efforts.

Additionally, Johnson navigated tensions with the Soviet Union, particularly in the wake of the Prague Spring. The Soviet-led invasion of Czechoslovakia in August 1968 to suppress the liberalization efforts there underscored the ongoing ideological struggle between East and West. Johnson condemned the invasion but had to balance his response with the broader context of Cold War diplomacy.

Legacy and Reflection

By the end of 1968, President Lyndon B. Johnson's presidency had left an indelible mark on American society and the world. His Great Society programs had laid the groundwork for significant social reforms, and his leadership in civil rights had contributed to crucial advancements in racial equality. However, the Vietnam War overshadowed much of his domestic achievements, leading to deep divisions within the country and tarnishing his legacy.

Johnson's decision not to seek re-election opened the door for new leadership and set the stage for a contentious and transformative election in 1968. His presidency, particularly the events of 1968, remains a complex and multifaceted chapter in American history, reflecting both the promise and the perils of his ambitious vision for the nation.

In conclusion, 1968 was a year of profound challenges and significant achievements for President Lyndon B. Johnson. His efforts to advance the Great Society, navigate the Vietnam War, promote civil rights, and manage economic and international issues defined his leadership during this pivotal period. As history continues to assess his legacy, Johnson's impact on the trajectory of the United States remains a subject of enduring debate and reflection.

1968 President of Singapore

Yusof bin Ishak (12 August 1910 – 23 November 1970) was an eminent Singaporean politician and the first President of Singapore. His portrait appears on the Singapore Portrait Series currency notes introduced in 1999.

Yusof was well known both as a journalist and the founder of the Malay newspaper Utusan Melayu prior to becoming head of state of Singapore. He was married to Noor Aishah.

He first served as Yang di-Pertuan Negara (head of state) between 1959 and 1965, remaining in office during the time that Singapore was part of the Federation of Malaysia between 1963 and 1965. Following Singapore's departure from Malaysia in 1965, he served as the first President of the Republic until his death in 1970.

Yusof is buried at Kranji State Cemetery.

1968 French Republic President

Charles André Joseph Marie de Gaulle (22 November 1890 – 9 November 1970) was a French general and statesman who led the Free French Forces during World War II. He later founded the French Fifth Republic in 1958 and served as its first President from 1959 to 1969. The 18th President of French Republic and Co-Prince of Andora

As President, Charles de Gaulle ended the political chaos that preceded his return to power. A new French currency was issued in January 1960 to control inflation and industrial growth was promoted. Although he initially supported French rule over Algeria, he controversially decided to grant independence to that country, ending an expensive and unpopular war but leaving France divided and having to face down opposition from the white settlers and French military who had originally supported his return to power.

De Gaulle oversaw the development of French atomic weapons and promoted a pan-European foreign policy, seeking independence from U.S. and British influence. He withdrew France from NATO military command - although remaining a member of the western alliance - and twice vetoed Britain's entry into the European Community. He travelled widely in Eastern Europe and other parts of the world and recognised Communist China. On a visit to Canada he gave encouragement to Quebec Separatism.

During his term, de Gaulle also faced controversy and political opposition from Communists and Socialists. Despite having been re-elected as President, this time by direct popular ballot, in 1965, in May 1968 he appeared likely to lose power amidst widespread protests by students and orkers, but survived the crisis with an increased majority in the Assembly. However, de Gaulle resigned after losing a referendum in 1969. He is considered by many to be the most influential leader in modern French history.

1968 Indonesia's President

Suharto (8 June 1921 – 27 January 2008) was the second President of Indonesia. He held the office from 1967 following Sukarno's removal up to his resignation in 1998.

Suharto was born in a small village near Yogyakarta, during the Dutch colonial controera. His Javanese peasant parents divorced not long after his birth, and for much of his childhood he was passed between foster parents. During the Japanese occupation of Indonesia, Suharto served in Japanese-organised Indonesian security forces. During Indonesia's independence struggle, he joined the newly-formed Indonesian army. Following Indonesian independence, Suharto rose to the rank of Major General. An attempted coup on 30 September 1965 was countered by Suharto-led troops, was blamed on the Indonesian Communist Party. An army led anti-communist purge, killed over half a million people, and Suharto wrested power from Indonesia's founding president, Sukarno. He was appointed acting president in 1967 and President the following year. Support for Suharto's presidency eroded following the hardship of 1997–98 Asian financial crisis. He was forced to resign from the presidency in May 1998 and he died in 2008.

The legacy of Suharto's 32-year rule is debated both in Indonesia and abroad. Under his "New Order" administration, Suharto constructed a strong, centralised and military-dominated government. An ability to maintain stability over a sprawling and diverse Indonesia and an avowedly anti-Communist stance won him the economic and diplomatic support of the West during the Cold War. For most of his presidency, Indonesia experienced significant economic growth and industrialisation, dramatically improving health, education and living standards. Indonesia's 24-year occupation of East Timor during Suharto's presidency, resulted in at least 100,000 deaths. By the 1990s, the New Order's authoritarianism and widespread corruption was a source of discontent. In the years since his presidency, attempts to try him on charges of corruption and genocide failed because of his poor health.

Like many Javanese, Suharto had only one name. In religious contexts, he is sometimes called “Haji” or “el-Haj Mohammed Suharto”, but this Islamic title is not part of his formal name or generally used. The spelling "Suharto" reflects current Indonesian spelling, but people's names were always exempt from this. The English-language press generally uses the spelling 'Suharto', but Suharto and his family, as well as the Indonesian government and media, use 'Soeharto'.

Mao Tse-tung 1968 Leader of China

Mao Zedong (Mao Tse-tung), also known as "Chairman Mao", was the leader of the Communist Party of China from 1935 to 1976 and dictator of Communist China from 1949-1976.
Mao led the Communist Party of China (CPC) to victory against the Kuomintang (KMT) in the Chinese Civil War, and was the leader of the People’s Republic of China (PRC) from its establishment in 1949 until his death in 1976. Commonly referred to as Chairman Mao, he has been regarded as one of the most important figures in modern world history, and named by Time Magazine as one of the 100 most influential people of the 20th century.

Mao Zedong remains a controversial figure to this day, with a contentious and ever-evolving legacy. Critics blame many of Mao's socio-political programs, such as the Great Leap Forward and the Cultural Revolution, for causing severe damage to the culture, society, economy, and foreign relations of China. Mao's policies and political purges in the first decades of the People's Republic are widely attributed to the deaths of between 40 to 70 million people.

During the Cultural Revolution, Mao became the focus of a personality cult. A number of the Chinese people regard Mao as the savior of the nation, who laid the military, political, economic, technological and cultural foundations of modern China.

Mao is officially held in high regard in China where he is known as a great revolutionary, political strategist, and military mastermind who defeated Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek in the Chinese Civil War, and then through his policies transformed the country into a major world power. Additionally, Mao is viewed by many in China as a poet, philosopher, and visionary. However, attitudes towards Mao have changed since Deng Xiaoping took power and initiated market-economic reforms in 1978, but the official party line makes a distinction between Mao's contributions to the Communist revolution and the "errors" he committed later in life.[5] His portrait continues to be featured prominently on Tiananmen Gate and on all Renminbi bills.

1968 President of the Philippines

Ferdinand Emmanuel Edralín Marcos (September 11, 1917 – September 28, 1989) was President of the Philippines from 1965 to 1986. He was a lawyer, member of the Philippine House of Representatives (1949-1959) and a member of the Philippine Senate (1959-1965). During World War II he fought against the Japanese as the leader of the "Ang Maharlika" guerrilla force in northern Luzon. In 1963 he became Senate President. As Philippine president and strongman, Marcos led his country in its post-war reconstruction. Initially, his intentions were laudable, to improve the economy and to increase agricultural productivity and to dismantle the oligarchy that had dominated the nation. His greatest achievements were in the areas of infrastructure development, safeguarding the country against communism, and international diplomacy.

However, his administration was marred by massive government corruption, despotism, nepotism, political repression and human rights violations. In 1986 he was removed from power by massive popular demonstrations, which began as a reaction to the political assassination of his opponent Senator Benigno S. Aquino, Jr. the previous year.

1968 Elected President of USA

Lyndon Baines Johnson (August 27, 1908 – January 22, 1973), often referred to as LBJ, served as the 36th President of the United States from 1963 to 1969 after his service as the 37th Vice President of the United States from 1961 to 1963. He served in all four federal elected offices of the United States: Representative, Senator, Vice President, and President.

Johnson, a Democrat, succeeded to the presidency following the assassination of President John F. Kennedy, completed Kennedy's term and was elected President in his own right, winning by a large margin in the 1964 Presidential election. Johnson was greatly supported by the Democratic Party and, as President, was responsible for designing the "Great Society" legislation that included laws that upheld civil rights, Public Broadcasting, Medicare, Medicaid, environmental protection, aid to education, and his attempt to help the poor in his "War on Poverty." Simultaneously, he greatly escalated direct American involvement in the Vietnam War.

Johnson served as a United States Representative from Texas, from 1937–1949 and as United States Senator (as his grandfather foretold when Johnson was just an infant) from 1949–1961, including six years as United States Senate Majority Leader, two as Senate Minority Leader and two as Senate Majority Whip. After campaigning unsuccessfully for the Democratic nomination in 1960, Johnson was asked by John F. Kennedy to be his running mate for the 1960 presidential election. Johnson's popularity as President steadily declined after the 1966 Congressional elections, and his re-election bid in the 1968 United States presidential election collapsed as a result of turmoil within the Democratic Party related to opposition to the Vietnam War. He withdrew from the race to concentrate on peacemaking.

Johnson was renowned for his domineering personality and the "Johnson treatment," his arm twisting of powerful politicians in order to advance legislation. He was a legendary "hands-on" manager and the last President to serve out his term without ever hiring a White House Chief of Staff or "gatekeeper" (a position invented by Kennedy's predecessor, Dwight Eisenhower).

Johnson's escalation of the Vietnam War ruined much of his credibility as President. Johnson was wary of potential political attacks from the right for losing a portion of the world to communism. Johnson believed that if Vietnam fell to the Communists, his presidency would be considered soft on communism, at the same time undermining his grand domestic agenda. Johnson began bombing North Vietnam in 1965 and it continued for the next 7 years through the Nixon Administration. Over time, Johnson escalated the number of troops and active military involvement in Vietnam. Soldier casualties were mounting and soon chants were heard, "Hey, Hey LBJ, How many kids did you kill today?" By the end of his presidency, Johnson turned into a recluse, rarely leaving the White House.

Johnson died after suffering his third heart attack, on January 22, 1973. He was 64 years old.